As per the first law of thermodynamics, energy is indestructible and no new energy can be created
I have captured the ideas of some great physicists and biologists about souls, which I reproduce here because to quote their comments would require so much more words that I am unable to accommodate in a single article. If soul theory is scientifically correct, human souls would be several billions. All species apparently visible will count several quadrillions or maybe more. Microorganisms invisible to our naked eyes and hidden inside earth and sea could be in the region of several zillions. An example will clarify my points. We have 100 trillion cells in our body while our body (a single human being) contains one quadrillion microbes. All floral and faunal species harbour microbes, which are many times more than their hosts. If souls or vital forces must be present to animate body, be it human or microbial, the number of souls will be countless. Where do these souls go when the body perishes? As human beings grow by leaps and bounds, new souls have to be created and after they die, souls will stay, meaning that souls, a kind of force, are also growing in number. As per the first Law of Thermodynamics, energy is indestructible and no new energy can be created. Therefore, creation of more souls is contrary to the first law. Moreover, in multicellular organisms, where does the soul stay when all cells are alive and work independently according to instruction contained within the nucleus? Scientists believe consciousness arises from the same biochemical processes, irrespective of the kinds of species, without the knowledge or control of our consciousness. However, because of genetic differences of one person from the other and environment including fetal environment with which we interact every moment, different body-mass gains different experiences. Nevertheless, two persons would have undergone the same experiences had the genetic make-up been the same and interactions of their fundamental particles both within the body and outside been the same. Remember, we have 100 trillion cells, and a single cell contains zillions of electrons and quarks, the building blocks of atoms. Readers may wonder why the number is so colossal. Just consider the fact that each strand of DNA contains 3 billion base-pairs or 6 billion nucleotides. DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. Each nucleotide is a big molecule that contains polysaccharide-triphosphate backbone joined by two base pairs, either AT (adenine and Thymine) or GC (Guanine and Cytosine) forming a rung of a ladder. Because of the enormous (countless number) number of interactions inside and that between internal fundamental particles and outside particles, the probabilities that two persons would go through the same interactions at the sub-atomic level is one in zillions of zillion. Because of the infinitesimal or almost zero probability, even two clones created from the same DNA would experience the world differently. There is consensus among leading scientists that there is no plural of consciousness and conscious-self arises from bio-chemical processes constantly going on inside every cell (intra-cellular level) and that going on at inter-cellular level. Another point for deliberation is did we, the human beings, evolved from the same ancestors. A single bacterium, a unicellular (prokaryote) organism and a single eukaryote yeast cell, both have cellular functions that are almost similar to that of a human being. There are about 25,000 genes in human, and while the number varies from organism to organism, many species have more genes that humans have. Both strands of DNA have the same genes, but occasionally they differ because of mutations due to radiation exposure and so on and because during replication the sequence of base pairs is occasionally misspelled. As for example, in DNA, the sequence of one strand may be ---ATACGATGCCTTAA--------- and another strand, which runs anti-parallel, should be-------- TATGCTACGGAATT, but it is misspelled as TATGCAACGGAATT (a single base pair is changed from T to A with far-reaching consequences). However, sequence of the total nucleotides in both strands should be the same. A particular gene expresses (not replication) through many cellular processes like unwinding of the two strands, cutting sites for fragments by restriction enzymes and making proteins for a particular job. The proteins are cellular robots, which do all sorts of work that cells need to do. There are promoters, primers, splicing and recombination and so on. Three bases such as ATA, CGA, called codons, each specifies an amino acid, and a definite number of amino acids arranged in right sequence will automatically fold into a protein. These genetic codes for amino acids and protein formation are the same for all species including human and bacteria. Although unicellular in size, bacteria have all the tools to take care of the environmental threats. This is because bacteria have been evolving for the last 3 billion years while the history of Homo sapiens is just 100,000 years. Now human beings take the help of bacteria (prokaryote) and yeast (eukaryote) to solve many of their problems at the cellular level. Biologists found in bacterial cells a plasmid in addition to its nucleus, which contains gene for antibiotic resistance. Initially biologists were amazed to think how bacteria had antibiotic resistance gene, when antibiotics are of recent origin. Then they figured out that this resistance gene might have developed over a much longer period of time to destroy fungal molds when in contact, which contains antibiotics. However, they protect their genes by methylation by an enzyme that neutralizes restriction enzymes. Bacteria have all the tools to protect them from threats. In fact, human discovered antibiotics from fungal molds. The similar processes at the cellular level prove that human and all other species including bacteria emerged from the same ancestors. How did we diverge? While mutations at the cellular level are either injurious or neutral, some mutations always change species for better. One of such mutations happened to our early ancestors rewriting our history. An example may be given how mutation could be beneficial. About several million years ago, a colossal geological change in Africa, which led to the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a depression of 3000 feet deep in the heart of Africa several thousand miles long and 50/ 60 miles width forced a mutation in the DNA of the then hominids/ great apes to turn bipedal from quadrupedal, making us the most formidable species. That the genetic code is the same for all organisms from bacteria up to humans confirms a single origin of life.
Biologists now routinely ligate human gene to a bacterial plasmid and use this recombinant gene as a vector to insert into bacterial DNA. Bacteria replicate their DNA and along with it also replicate the piece of human DNA that expresses a particular gene. These bacterial DNA fragments are cut by restriction enzymes also procured from bacteria and put them in petri-plate to multiply. Using appropriate medium, copies of human genes are segregated from other genes, purified and used for medicinal purposes. Craig Venter, owner of Celera, who helped Human Genome Project progress faster and come to conclusion sooner and his team customized in lab a DNA molecule first working out the structure in a computer and then adding N-bases (A, T, G, C) and finally transformed (biological word for place/ put) it into bacterial cell deleting its own nucleus. The cell started functioning according to instructions contained in the new DNA and became a new organism. According to Venter and other scientists, DNA is the software for life and other organelles and proteins that are made under instructions from genes are hardware. Life is based on DNA software. We're a DNA software system, and if the DNA software of a species is changed, the organism will be changed to a new species. Life is a process of dynamic renewal. We're all shedding about 500 million skin cells every day. That is the dust that accumulates in our home. We shed our entire outer layer of skin every two to four weeks. Our blood cells some five times ten to the power of 11 die every day. If we're not constantly synthesizing new cells, we die. During normal organ development about half of all of our cells die. Everything in life is constantly turning over and being renewed by rereading the DNA software and making new proteins. Scientists are now routinely exchanging DNA fragments by internet, meaning that they exchange the sequence of codons (3-letter or 3-bases code), code for amino acids that they stitch together to make a gene or a synthetic organism. Drew Andy predicts that in a few years scientists would be able to design their own offspring.
Brain enhancing drugs and implements are now in use in hospitals, and improved versions are being developed every now and then. Nootropics and neutronics are now being used as brain enhancers. In near future, genetic engineering, gene replacement and many novel techniques will bring about real change in medical care, food production and energy, and there shall not be any let up to tinker with genes.
